Paris Perspective #13: The Battle of Waterloo - the legacy of Napoleon Bonaparte - Pt.3
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This week marks the anniversary of the Battle of Waterloo, the hard fought engagement between a resurgent Napoleon Bonaparte and the British-led coalition commanded by the Duke of Wellington and Prussian troops led by General Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher. This edition of Paris Perspective reflects upon Napoleon’s final campaign that ended his reign of power in Europe.
Less than a month after his dramatic flight from exile on the Mediterranean island of Elba, Napoleon and his loyal supporters entered Paris on 20 March 1815. Hours before his arrival at the Tuileries Palace, the throne of France was vacated by the Bourbon King Louis XVIII.
Upon hearing of his return, the Congress of Vienna – an assembly of European diplomats who reorganised continental alliances in the wake of the Napoleonic wars – declared Bonaparte an outlaw.
The returning Emperor knew that in order to consolidate his power he would have to engage with allied forces north of the French border, before they deployed south.
Peter Hicks, a historian with the Fondation Napoléon in Paris, says Napoleon’s hand was forced in many ways, as he was now viewed as “a perturber of the universe” by the Congress of Vienna, which had closed for business.
“The allies were present. The Prussians were arriving from the north. So Napoleon, as usual, goes on the attack,” explains Hicks. Napoleon headed north across the river Meuse to split the British allied forces under the Duke of Wellington, and the Prussians led by Prince Blücher.
Napoleon's gambit pays off...at first
“Initially Napoleon’s forces were successful when they first engaged with the Prussians and then the British-led forces,” says Hicks, adding that on 16 June there was a double battle.
Napoleon split his army in two and sent one detachment towards the Prussians – hoping to push them further east, in a bid to separate them from Wellington. This became known as the Battle of Ligny.
On the same day, French and British-led forces met at the hamlet of Quatre-Bras – a crossroads – in a move seen as a victory for Napoleon as it forced Wellington to retreat.
However his withdrawal was tactical, explains Hicks: “Wellington meets Blücher on the day, and they agree to pull back. Wellington pulls back to his position carefully prepared at Mont-Saint-Jean, also known as Waterloo.”
Because Mont-Saint-Jean was on a ridge, Wellington had a commanding, strategic advantage over the approaching French forces.
Napoleon Vs Wellington - Hubris or bravado?
Although Wellington had the upper hand, Napoleon scoffed at his adversary’s position on the battlefield, says Hicks. “The Emperor says ‘he’s setting himself with his back to a forest’ – that’s catastrophic. He’s liable to be pinned down.”
Although Napoleon believed he could drive Wellington into the woods, the Duke had also prepared his retreat.
“There was a line that went from Waterloo all the way to Bruges, so the British troops could be whisked away on boats to avoid being captured by the French, should that have happened,” Hicks says.
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Waiting for the field to dry
Another famous decision made by Napoleon ahead of his battle with Wellington was delaying the assault to allow the ground dry following rain the night before.
The move allowed Blücher time to regroup with Wellington and launch their final attack on Napoleon’s forces. So was this a crucial mistake, just as the French were on the cusp of winning the battle?
“Napoleon was waiting for the ground to dry out because cannonballs bounce," explains Hicks. "You want them to bounce to kill more people. If the ground is wet, they don’t go anywhere.”
Though he adds that Napoleon was not in particularly good health, either. "So there’s a mixture of strategy and perhaps lethargy.”
There was also a breakdown in communication between Napoleon and French general Emmanuel de Grouchy, who had been given 35,000 men and firm instructions “to deal with these Prussians,” says Hicks.
“But some manage to emerge through the woods and onto the battlefield.”
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The sacrifice of the Imperial Guard
Napoleon held out until well into the evening of 18 July, until it became clear that all was lost. The Imperial Guard came to his rescue.
“The Carré Sacré, the Imperial Guard – who don’t usually fight – are finally deployed at Waterloo. They surround Napoleon and escort him off the battlefield,” Hicks recounts.
"What swiftly follows is a débandade, a complete breakdown of order, as the British cavalry are launched into the melée to the cries of “Huzzar!”
The Battle of Waterloo concluded at twilight, around 10pm, says Hicks. “The field is covered in dead horses and dead people, and you can imagine it was a terrible thing.”
Over several days, the battlefield remained a macabre scene as soldiers slowly perished from hunger, thirst or untreated wounds.
“This was standard for First Empire battles,” says Hicks. “At the Battle of Leipzig, there were still corpses on the field a month later. It was a public health disaster.”
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The aftermath of the Napoleonic Wars
After his defeat, Napoleon was exiled for a second time, this time to St Helena in the South Atlantic Ocean.
He died in 1821 of stomach cancer at the age of 52, with France commemorating the 200th anniversary of his death this year.
The legacy of Waterloo remains a bittersweet triumph in the eyes of the victors, says Hicks. “There was major loss of life and there are no major monuments celebrating the victory.”
One staggering fact, he adds, is that the Battle of Waterloo death toll is comparable to that of the Battle of the Somme, 101 years later – during the First World War.
The Napoleonic Wars were followed by almost 50 years of peace on the continent. “That was because the dead hand of the ancien régime came back to stifle Europe until the revolutions of the 1840s,” says Hicks.
It could also be said that the Council of Vienna, along with Napoleon’s defeat, safeguarded the hegemony of the aristocracy until World War One.
“There is this sense that these old fashioned, old world kings and nobles – all the things Napoleon tried to play with – can be seen as a backward step.”
To conclude, Hicks reminds us that Napoleon’s grand scheme may have gone the same way.
“He was quite ancien régime himself, although he did carry on talking about a republic. But it’s an empire … A republican empire. And there was still the possibility that you couldn’t get a job without being the son of a noble.”
Watch full video here
Written, produced & presented by David Coffey
Recorded, mixed & edited by Cécile Pompeani, Nicolas Doreau, Erwan Rome and Vincent Pora
Full Interview - The Battle of Waterloo - The leagcy of Napoleon Pt.3
Dr. Peter Hicks is an historian and international relations director with the Fondation Napoléon.
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